Tema: Clonagem
KILNER, John F. Human Cloning. The Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity, Trinity International University, Deerfield, 2002. Disponível em <http://www.cbhd.org/content/human-cloning> Acesso em 04 abr 2012.
Human Cloning
Post Date: 11/15/2002
·
Cloning
Author:
We live in a brave
new world in which reproductive technologies are ravaging as well as
replenishing families. Increasingly common are variations of the situation in
which "baby's mother is also grandma-and sister."1 Sometimes extreme measures are necessary
in order to have the kind of child we want.
This new eugenics is
simply the latest version of the age-old quest to make human beings--in fact,
humanity as a whole--the way we want them to be: perfect. It includes our
efforts to be rid of unwanted human beings through abortion and euthanasia. It
more recently is focusing on our growing ability to understand and manipulate
our genetic code, which directs the formation of many aspects of who we are,
for better and for worse.
We aspire to complete control over the code, though at
this point relatively little is possible. This backdrop can help us understand the great fascination with human
cloning today. It promises to give us a substantial measure of power over the
genetic makeup of our offspring. We cannot control their code exactly, but
the first major step in that direction is hugely appealing: You can have a
child whose genetic code is exactly like your own. And you didn't turn out so
badly, did you?
Admittedly, in our
most honest moments we would improve a few things about ourselves. So the
larger agenda here remains complete genetic control. But human cloning
represents one concrete step in that direction, and the forces pushing us from
behind to take that step are tremendous. These forces are energized, as we will
see, by the very ways we look at life and justify our actions. But before examining
such forces, we need a clearer view of human cloning itself.
The Rising Prospect of Human Cloning
It was no longer ago
than 1997 when the president of the United States first challenged the nation
and charged his National Bioethics Advisory Commission2 to give careful thought to how
the United States should proceed regarding human cloning. Attention to this
issue was spurred by the reported cloning of a large mammal--a sheep--in a new
way. The method involved not merely splitting an early-stage embryo to produce
identical twins. Rather, it entailed producing a nearly exact genetic replica
of an already existing adult.
The technique is
called nuclear transfer or nuclear transplantation because it involves
transferring the nucleus (and thus most of the genetic material) from a cell of
an existing being to an egg cell in order to replace the egg cell's nucleus. Stimulated
to divide by the application of electrical energy, this egg--now embryo--is
guided by its new genetic material to develop as a being who is genetically
almost identical to the being from which the nucleus was taken. This process was
reportedly carried out in a sheep to produce the sheep clone named Dolly3 but attention quickly shifted to
the prospects for cloning human beings (by which I will mean here and
throughout, cloning by nuclear transfer).
Quickly people began
to see opportunities for profit and notoriety. By 1998, for example, scientist
Richard Seed had announced intentions to set up a Human Clone Clinic--first in Chicago, then in ten to
twenty locations nationally, then in five to six locations internationally.4 While the U.S. federal
government was pondering how to respond to such initiatives, some of the states
began passing legislation to outlaw human cloning research, and nineteen
European nations acted quickly to sign a ban on human cloning itself.5 However, the European ban only
blocks the actual implantation, nurture, and birth of human clones, and not
also cloning research on human embryos that are never implanted. Such research
has been slowed in the United
States since the president and then Congress
withheld federal government funds from research that subjects embryos to risk
for non-therapeutic purposes.6 Moreover, a United Nations declaration co-sponsored by
eighty-six countries in late 1998 signaled a broad worldwide opposition to
research that would lead to human cloning.7
Yet there are signs
of this protection for embryos weakening in the face of the huge benefits
promised by stem cell research. Stem cells can treat many illnesses and can
have the capacity to develop into badly needed body parts such as tissues and
organs. One way to obtain stem cells is to divide an early stage embryo into
its component cells--thereby destroying the embryonic human being. Under
President Clinton, the National Institutes of Health decided that as long
as private sources destroyed the embryos and produced the stem cells, the
federal government would fund research on those cells.8 During 2001, President Bush prohibited
federally-funded research on embryonic stem cells produced after the date his
prohibition was announced. In 2002, his newly-formed Council on Bioethics
raised serious questions about even this form of embryonic stem cell research,
through the Council was divided on this matter.9 These
developments underscore that there are a number of technological developments
that are closely interrelated and yet have somewhat different ethical considerations
involved. While embryo and stem cell research are very important issues, they
are distinct ethically from the question of reproducing human beings through
cloning. Reproduction by cloning is the specific focus of this essay.
While no
scientifically verifiable birth of a human clone has yet been reported, the
technology and scientific understanding are already in place to make such an
event plausible at any time now. There is an urgent need to think through the
relevant ethical issues. To begin with, is it acceptable to refer to human
beings produced by cloning technology as "clones"? It would
seem so, as long as there does not become a stigma attached to that term that
is not attached to more cumbersome expressions like "a person who is the
result of cloning" or "someone created through the use of somatic
cell nuclear transfer." We call someone from Italy an Italian, no
disrespect intended. So it can be that a person "from cloning" is a
clone. We must be ready to abandon this term, however, if it becomes a label
that no longer meets certain ethical criteria.10
Why Clone Human Beings?
In order to address
the ethics of human cloning itself, we need to understand why people would want
to do it in the first place. People often respond to the prospect of human
cloning in two ways. They are squeamish about the idea--a squeamishness Leon
Kass has argued we should take very seriously.11 They also find something
alluring about the idea. Such fascination is captured in a variety of films,
including "The Boys from Brazil" (portraying the attempt to clone
Adolf Hitler), "Bladerunner" (questioning whether a clone would be
more like a person or a machine), and "Multiplicity" (presenting a
man's attempt to have enough time for his family, job, and other pursuits by
producing several live adult replicas of himself). Popular discussions center
on the wonderful prospects of creating multiple Mother Teresas, Michael
Jordans, or other notable figures.
The greatest problem
with creative media-driven discussions like this is that they often reflect a
misunderstanding of the science and people involved. The film
"Multiplicity" presents human replicas, not clones in the form that
we are discussing them here. When an adult is cloned (e.g., the adult sheep
from which Dolly was cloned), an embryo is created, not another adult. Although
the embryo's cells contain the same genetic code as the cells of the adult
being cloned, the embryo must go through many years of development in an
environment that is significantly different from that in which the adult
developed. Because both our environment and our genetics substantially
influence who we are, the embryo will not become the same person as the adult. In
fact, because we also have a spiritual capacity to evaluate and alter either or
both our environment and our genetics, human clones are bound to be quite
different from the adults who provide their genetic code.
If this popular
fascination with hero-duplication is not well founded, are there any more
thoughtful ethical justifications for human cloning? Many have been put
forward, and they cluster into three types: utility justifications, autonomy
justifications, and destiny justifications. The first two types reflect ways of
looking at the world that are highly influential in the United States and
elsewhere today, so we must examine them carefully. They can readily be
critiqued on their own terms. The third, while also influential, helpfully
opens the door to theological reflection as well. I will begin by explaining
the first two justifications. In the following sections I will then assess the
first two justifications and carefully examine the third.
Utility
Utility justifications defend a practice based on its
usefulness, or benefit. As long as it will produce a net increase in human
well-being, it is warranted. People are well acquainted with the notion of
assessing costs and benefits, and it is common to hear the argument that
something will produce so much benefit that efforts to block it must surely be
misguided.
Utility justifications are common in discussions of
human cloning. Typical examples include:
1.
By having clones, people can, in some measure, have more of
themselves in the world and thereby make a bigger impact.
2.
Parents can replace
a dying child with a genetically identical new one.
3.
Parents can produce a clone of a sick child to provide bone
marrow or other lifesaving
bodily elements that can be provided with relatively modest risk to the clone.
4.
Parents, both of
whom have a lethal recessive gene, can produce a child by cloning rather than risk the one-in-four
chance that their child
will face an early death.
5.
Clones could be produced to provide organs for transplants admittedly,
transplants that could jeopardize or even end a clone's life.
6.
Other clones
could be produced with unusually high or low mental capacities that would suit
them well to do socially needed tasks, for example, challenging problem solving or menial
labor.
Autonomy
The second type of
justification appeals to the idea of autonomy, an increasingly popular appeal
in this postmodern age, in which people's personal experiences and values play
a most important role in determining what is right and true for them. According to this
justification, we ought to
respect people's autonomy as a matter of principle. People's beliefs and values
are too diverse to adopt any particular set of them as normative for everyone.
Society should do everything possible to enhance the ability of individuals and
groups to pursue what they deem most important.
Again, there are many forms that autonomy justifications
can take. However, three stand out as particularly influential in discussions
of human cloning:
1.
"Personal
freedom." There is a strong commitment in many countries, the
United States in particular, to respecting people's freedom. This commitment is
rooted in a variety of religious and secular traditions. Respect for people
entails allowing them to make important life decisions that flow from their own
personal values, beliefs, and goals, rather than coercing them to live by a
burdensome array of social requirements.
2.
"Reproductive
choice." Reproductive decisions are especially private and personal
matters. They have huge implications for one's future responsibilities and well
being. Social intrusion in this realm is particularly odious.
3.
"Scientific
inquiry." A high value has long been placed on protecting the
freedom of scientific inquiry. More knowledge and better understanding enhance
our capacity to make good decisions and accomplish great things in the world.
Utility and autonomy
are important ethical justifications. However, they do not provide a sufficient
ethical basis for human cloning. We will examine them here carefully in turn.
Understanding Utility
While the concern
for utility is admirable, there are many serious problems with this type of
justification. Most significantly, it is "unworkable" and it is
"dangerous." It is unworkable because knowing how much utility
cloning or any other practice has, with a reasonable level of precision, is
simply impossible. We cannot know all of the ways
that a practice will affect all people in the world infinitely into the future.
For example, it is impossible to quantify accurately the satisfaction of every
parent in future centuries who will choose cloning rather than traditional
sexual reproduction in order to spare their children from newly discovered
genetic problems that are now unknown. In fact, as sheep cloner Ian Wilmut was
widely quoted as observing, shortly after announcing his cloning of Dolly,
"Most of the things
cloning will be used for have yet to be imagined." The difficulty of
comparing the significance of every foreseeable consequence on the same scale
of value--including comparing each person's subjective experiences with
everyone else's--only adds to the unworkability.
What happens in real life is that decision makers
intuitively compare only those consequences they are most aware of and concerned
about. Such an approach is an open invitation to bias and discrimination,
intended and unintended. Even more dangerous is the absence of limits to what
can be justified. There are no built-in protections for weak individuals or
minority groups, including clones. People can be
subjected to anything, the worst possible oppression or even death, if it is
beneficial to the majority. Situations such as Nazi Germany and American slavery can
be justified using this way of thinking.
When utility is our basis for justifying what is
allowed in society, people are used, fundamentally, as mere means to achieve
the ends of society or of particular people. It may be appropriate to use plants and animals in this way, within
limits. Accordingly, most people do not find it objectionable to clone animals
and plants to achieve products that will fulfill a purpose--better milk, better
grain, and so forth. However, it is demeaning to "use" people in this way.
This demeaning is
what bothers us about the prospect of producing a large group of human clones
with low intelligence so that society can have a source of cheap menial labor. It
is also what is problematic about producing clones to provide spare parts, such
as vital transplantable organs for other people. Both actions fail to respect
the equal and great dignity of all people by making some, in effect, the slaves
of others. Even cloning a child who dies to remove the parents grief forces the
clone to have a certain genetic makeup in order to be the parents' child, thereby
permanently subjecting the clone to the parents' will. The irony of this last
situation, though, is that the clone will not become the same child as was
lost--both the child and the clone being the product of far more than their
genetics. The clone will be demeaned by not being fully respected and accepted
as a unique person, and the parents will fail to regain their lost child in the
process.
To summarize: The
utility justification is a substantially inadequate basis for defending a
practice like cloning. In other words, showing that a good benefit, even a
great benefit, will result is not a sufficient argument to justify an action. Although
it is easy to forget this basic point when enticed by the promise of a
wonderful benefit, we intuitively know it is true. We recognize that we could,
for example, cut up oneperson, take her or his various
organs for transplant, and save many lives
as a result. But we do not go around doing that. We realize that if the action we take to achieve the
benefit is itself horrendous, beneficial results are not enough to justify it.
As significant a
critique as this is of a utility justification for human cloning, there is more
to say. For even if it were an adequate type of justification, which it is not,
it is far from clear that it would justify human cloning. To justify human
cloning on the basis of utility, all the consequences of allowing this practice
have to be considered, not only the benefits generated by the exceptional
situations commonly cited in its defense. What are some of the consequences we
need to be concerned about? There is only space here to note two of the many
that weigh heavily against human cloning.
First, as suggested
earlier, to allow cloning is to open the door to a much more frightening
enterprise: genetically engineering people without their consent, not for their
own benefit, but for the benefit of particular people or society at large. Cloning
entails producing a person with a certain genetic code because of the
attractiveness or usefulness of a person with that code. In this sense, cloning
is just the tip of a much larger genetic iceberg. We are developing the genetic
understanding and capability to shape the human genetic code in many ways. If
we allow cloning, we legitimize in principle the entire enterprise of designing
children to suit parental or social purposes. As one researcher at the U.S.
Council on Foreign Relations has commented, Dolly is best understood as a drop in a towering wave (of
genetic research) that is about to crash over us. The personal and social destructiveness of large-scale
eugenic efforts (including but by no means limited to Nazi Germany's) has been
substantial, but at least it has been restricted to date by our limited genetic
understanding and technology.12 Today the stakes are much higher.
The second of the
many additional considerations that must be included in any honest utilitarian
calculus involves the allocation of limited resources. To spend resources on the development and practice
of human cloning is to not spend them on other endeavors that would be more
beneficial to society. For many years now there have been extensive
discussions about the expense of health care and the large number of people (tens
of millions), even in the United States, that do not have health insurance.13 It has also
long been established that such lack of insurance means that a significant
number of people are going without necessary health care and are suffering or
dying as a result.14
Another way of observing similar pressing needs in health care is to survey the
specific areas that could most benefit from additional funds.15 In most of
these areas, inadequate funding yields serious health consequences because
there is no alternative way to produce the basic health result at issue.
Not only are the
benefits of human cloning less significant than those that could be achieved by
expending the same funds on other health care initiatives, but there are
alternative ways of bringing children into the world that can yield at least
one major benefit of cloning children themselves. If there were enough
resources available to fund every technology needed or wanted by anyone, the
situation would be different. But researching and practicing human cloning will
result in serious suffering and even loss of life because other pressing health
care needs cannot be met.
An open door to
unethical genetic engineering technologies and a misallocation of limited
resources, then, are among the numerous consequences of human cloning that
would likely more than outweigh the benefits the practice would achieve. As
previously argued, we would do better to avoid attempting to justify human
cloning simply based on its consequences. But if we are tempted to do so, we
must be honest and include all the consequences and not be swayed by
exceptional cases that seem so appealing because of the special benefits they
would achieve.
Assessing Autonomy
Many people today are less persuaded by utility
justifications than they are by appeals to autonomy. While the concern for freedom
and responsibility for one's own life in this way of thinking is admirable,
autonomy justifications are as deeply flawed as utility justifications. More
specifically, they are selfish and they aredangerous.
The very term by which this type of justification is
named underscores its selfishness. The word autonomy
comes from two Greek words, auto (meaning "self") and nomos (meaning "law"). In the
context of ethics, appeals to autonomy literally signify that the self is its
own ethical law that it generates its own standards of right and wrong. There
is no encouragement in this way of looking at the world to consider the
well-being of others, for that is irrelevant as long as it does not matter to
me. Although in theory I should respect the autonomy of others as I live out my
own autonomy, in practice an autonomous mindset predisposes me to be
unconcerned about how my actions will affect others.
As long as the
people making autonomous choices happen to have good moral character that
predisposes them to be concerned about the well-being of everyone else, there
will not be serious problems. In the United States to date, the
substantial influence of Christianity--with its mandate to love others
sacrificially--has prompted people to use their autonomous choices to further
the interests of others alongside of their own. As Christian influences in
public life, from public policy to public education, continue to be eradicated
in the name of separation of church and state, the self-centeredness of an
autonomy outlook will become increasingly evident. Consciously or
unconsciously, selfish and other base motives arise within us continually, and
without countervailing influences, there is nothing in an autonomy outlook to
ensure that the well-being of others will be protected.
When autonomy rules,
then, scientists, family members, and others are predisposed to act on the
basis of their own autonomous perspectives, and the risk to others is real. Herein
lies the danger of autonomy-based thinking, a danger that is similar to that
attending a utility-oriented outlook. Protecting people's choices is fine as
long as all people are in a comparable position to make those choices. But if
some people are in a very weak position economically or socially or physically,
they may not be able to avail themselves of the same opportunities, even if
under more equitable circumstances they would surely want to do so. In an
autonomy-based approach, there is no commitment to justice, caring, or any
other ethical standards that would safeguard those least able to stand up for
themselves.
An autonomy
justification is simply an insufficient basis for justifying a practice like
human cloning. In other words, showing that a freedom would otherwise be curtailed is not a sufficient
argument to justify an action. We have learned this lesson the hard way,
by allowing scientific inquiry to proceed unfettered. The Nuremberg Code
resulted from research atrocities that were allowed to occur because it was not
recognized that there are other ethical considerations that can be more
important than scientific and personal freedom (autonomy).16
While the autonomy
justification itself is flawed, there is more to say about it as a basis for
defending human cloning. For even if it were an adequate type of ethical
justification--which it is not--it is far from clear that it would actually
justify the practice. An
honest, complete autonomy-based evaluation of human cloning would have to
consider the autonomy of all persons involved, including the people produced
through cloning, and not just the autonomy of researchers and people desiring
to have clones. Of the many considerations that would need to be taken
into account if the autonomy of the clones were taken seriously, space will
only permit the examination of two here.
First, human cloning involves a grave risk to the
clone's life. There is no plausible way to undertake
human cloning at this point without a major loss of human life. In the process
of cloning the sheep Dolly, 276 failed attempts occurred, including the death
of several so-called "defective" clones. An alternative process used
to clone monkeys added the necessary destruction of embryonic life to these
other risks. It involved transferring the genetic material from each of the
cells in an eight-celled embryo to other egg cells in order to attempt to
produce eight so-called clones (or, more properly, identical siblings). Subsequent
mammal cloning has continued the large-scale fatalities and deformities that
unavoidably accompany cloning research. Were these experimental technologies to be applied to
human beings, the evidence and procedures themselves show that many human
embryos, fetuses, and infants would be lost--and many others deformed--whatever
the process. This tragedy would be compounded by the fact that it is unlikely
human cloning research would be limited to a single location. Rather, similar
mistakes and loss of human life would be occurring almost simultaneously at
various private and public research sites.
Normally, experimentation on human beings is allowed
only with their explicit consent. (Needless to say, it is impossible to obtain a clone's
consent to be brought into existence through cloning.) An exception is
sometimes granted in the case of a child, including one still in the
womb, who has a verifiable medical problem which experimental treatment may be
able to cure or help. However, human cloning is not covered by this exception
for two reasons. First, there is no existing human being with a medical problem
in the situation in which a human cloning experiment would be attempted. Second,
even if that were not an obstacle, there is typically no significant
therapeutic benefit to the clone in the many scenarios for which cloning has
been proposed. For the experiment to be ethical, there would need to be
therapeutic benefit to the clone so huge as to outweigh the substantial
likelihood of the death or deformity that occurred in the Dolly experiment. To
proceed with human cloning at this time, then, would involve a massive assault
on the autonomy of all clones produced, whether they lived or died.
There is also a
second way that human cloning would conflict with the autonomy of the people
most intimately involved in the practice, that is, the clones themselves. Human cloning would radically
weaken the family structure and relationships of the clone and therefore be
fundamentally at odds with their most basic interests. Consider the confusion
that arises over even the most basic relationships involved. Are the
children who result from cloning really the siblings or the children of their
"parents"--really the children or the grandchildren of their
"grandparents"? Genetics suggests one answer and age the other.
Regardless of any future legal resolutions of such matters, child clones (not
to mention others inside and outside the family) will almost certainly
experience confusion. Such confusion will impair their psychological and social
well being--in fact, their very sense of identity. A host of legal entanglements, including inheritance
issues, will also result.
This situation is
problematic enough where a clearly identified family is involved. But during
the experimental phase in particular, identifying the parents of clones
produced in a laboratory may be even more troublesome. Is the donor of the genetic material automatically
the parent? What about the donor of the egg into which the genetic
material is inserted? If the genetic material and egg are simply donated
anonymously for experimental purposes, does the scientist who manipulates them
and produces a child from them become the parent? Who will provide the
necessary love and care for the damaged embryo, fetus, or child that results
when mistakes are made and it is so much easier just to discard them?
As the U.S. National
Bioethics Advisory Commission's report has observed (echoed more recently by
the report of the President's Council on Bioethics), human cloning
"invokes images of manufacturing children according to specification. The
lack of acceptance this implies for children who fail to develop according to
expectations, and the dominance it introduces into the parent-child
relationship, is viewed by many as fundamentally at odds with the acceptance,
unconditional love, and openness characteristic of good parenting."17 "It just doesn't make
sense," to quote Ian Wilmut, who objected strenuously to the notion of
cloning humans after he succeeded in producing the sheep clone Dolly.18 He was joined by U.S. President
Clinton, who quickly banned the use of federal funds for human cloning
research, and by the World Health Organization, who summarily labeled human cloning
ethically unacceptable.19 Their reaction resonates with many,
who typically might want to "have" a clone, but would not want to
"be" one. What is the difference? It is the intuitive recognition
that while the option of cloning may expand the autonomy of the person
producing the clone, it undermines the autonomy of the clone.
So the autonomy
justification, like the utility justification, is much more problematic than it
might at first appear to be. We would do better not even to attempt to justify
human cloning by appealing to this type of justification because of its
inherent shortcomings. But if we are to invoke it, we must be honest and pay
special attention to the autonomy of the person most intimately involved in the
cloning, the clone. Particular appeals to "freedom" or
"choice" may seem persuasive. But if only the autonomy of people
other than clones is in view, or only one limited aspect of a clone's autonomy,
then such appeals must be rejected.
The Destiny Justification
As noted near the outset of the chapter, there is a
third type of proposed justification for human cloning which moves us more
explicitly into the realm of theological reflection: the destiny justification. While other theological arguments against cloning have been advanced
in the literature to date,20 many of them are somehow related to the matter of destiny. According to
this justification, it is
part of our God-given destiny to exercise complete control over our
reproductive process. In fact, Richard Seed, in one of his first
in-depth interviews after announcing his intentions to clone human beings
commercially, made this very argument.21 No less a
theologian, President Clinton offered the opposite view when he issued the ban
on human cloning. Rather than seeing cloning as human destiny, he rejected it
as "playing
God."22
Whether or not we think it wise to take our theological cues from either of
these individuals, what are we to make of the proposed destiny justification
itself? Is human cloning in line with God's purposes for us?
To begin with, there
are indeed problems with playing God the way that proponents of human cloning
would have us do. For example, God can take utility and autonomy considerations
into account in ways that people cannot. God knows the future, including every
consequence of every consequence of all our actions, people do not. God loves
all persons equally, without bias, and is committed and able to understand and
protect the freedom of everyone, people are not. Moreover, there are other ways
that the pursuit of utility and autonomy are troubling from a theological
perspective.
The utility of human
cloning, first of all, is that we can gain some benefit by producing clones. But
using other people without their consent for our ends is a violation of their
status as beings created in the image of God. People have a God-given dignity that prevents us from
using them as mere means to achieve our purposes. Knowing that people
are created in the image of God (Gen. 1:26-27), biblical writers in both the
Old and New Testaments periodically invoke this truth to argue that human
beings should not be demeaned in various ways (e.g., Gen. 9:6; James 3:9). Since
plants and animals are never said to be created in God's image, it is not
surprising that they can be treated in ways (including killing) that would
never be acceptable if people were in view (cf. Gen. 9:3 with 9:6).
An autonomy-based
justification of human cloning is no more acceptable than a utility-based
justification from a theological perspective. Some Christian writers, such as
Allen Verhey, have helpfully observed that autonomy, understood in a particular
way, is a legitimate biblical notion. As he explains, under the sovereignty of
God, acknowledging the autonomy of the person can help ensure respect for and
proper treatment of people made in God's image.23 There is a risk here, however,
because the popular ethics of autonomy has no place for God in it. It is
autonomy "over" God, not autonomy "under" God. The
challenge is to affirm the critical importance of respect for human beings, and
for their freedom and responsibility to make decisions that profoundly affect
their lives, but to recognize that such freedom requires God. More
specifically, such freedom requires the framework in which autonomy is under
God, not over God, a framework in which respecting freedom is not just wishful
or convenient thinking that gives way as soon as individuals or society as a
whole have more to gain by disregarding it. It must be rooted in something that
unavoidably and unchangeably 'is." In other words, it must be rooted in
God, in the creation of human beings in the image of God.
God is the creator,
and we worship God as such. Of course, people are creative as well, being the
images of God that they are. So what is the difference between God's creation
of human beings, as portrayed in the book of Genesis, and human procreation as
happens daily all over the world (also mandated by God in Genesis)? Creation is
"ex nihilo," out of nothing. That means, in the first sense, that God
did not just rearrange already existing materials. God actually brought into
being a material universe where nothing even existed before. However, God's
creation "ex nihilo" suggests something more. It suggests that there
was no agenda outside of God that God was following--nothing outside of God
that directed what were acceptable options. When it came to the human portion
of creation, God created us to be the way God deemed best.
It is no accident
that we call what we do when we have babies "procreation." "Pro" means
"for" or "forth." To be sure, we do bring babies
"forth." But the deeper meaning here is "for." We bring new
human beings into the world "for" someone or something. To be specific, we continue the line of human beings for God, in
accordance with God's mandate to humanity at the beginning to "be fruitful
and multiply" (Gen. 1:28). We also create for the people whom we help bring into
being. We help give them life, and they are the ones most affected by our
actions. What is particularly significant about this "procreation,"
this "creation for," is that by its very nature it is subject to an
outside agenda, to God's agenda primarily, and secondarily to the needs of the
child being created.
In this light, the
human cloning mindset is hugely problematic. With unmitigated pride it claims
the right to create rather than procreate. It looks neither to God for the way
that he has intended human beings to be procreated and raised by fathers and
mothers who are the secondary, that is, genetic source of their life; nor does
it look primarily to the needs of the one being procreated. As we have seen, it
looks primarily to the cloner's own preferences or to whatever value system one
chooses to prioritize (perhaps the "good of society," etc.). In other
words, those operating out of the human cloning mindset see themselves as
Creator rather than procreator. This is the kind of aspiring to be God for
which God has consistently chastised people, and for which God has ultimately
wreaked havoc on many a society and civilization.
Leon Kass has
observed that we have traditionally used the word "procreation" for
having children because we have viewed the world, and human life in particular,
as created by God. We have understood our creative involvement in terms of and
in relation to God's creation.24 Today we increasingly orient more to the material world than to
God. We are more impressed with the gross national product than with the
original creation. So we more commonly talk in terms of
re"production" rather than pro"creation." In the process,
we associate people more closely with things, with products, than with the God
of creation. No wonder our respect for human life is deteriorating. We become
more like that with which we associate. If we continue on this path, if our
destiny is to clone ourselves, then our destiny is also, ultimately, to lose
all respect for ourselves, to our peril.
Claims about
utility, autonomy, or destiny, then, are woefully inadequate to justify human
cloning. In fact, a careful look at any of these types of justification shows
that they provide compelling reasons instead to reject human cloning. To stand
up and say so may become more and more difficult in our "brave new
world." As the culture increasingly promotes production and
self-assertion, it will take courage to insist in the new context of cloning
that there is something more important. But such a brave new word, echoing the
Word of old, is one that we must be bold to speak.
1 Bette-Jane Crigger, ed., Cases in Bioethics, 2nd ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993).
2 See National Bioethics Advisory Commission, Cloning
Human Beings: Report and Recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory
Commission, June 1997.
3 Ian Wilmut et al., "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult Mammalian Cells", Nature 385 (1997): 810-13.
4 Peter Kendall, "Image of Human Cloning Proponent: Odd and
Mercurial," Chicago Tribune, 11 January 1998, p. 6.
5 "Europe Moves to Ban Human
Cloning," Bulletin of Medical
Ethics, January 1998, pp. 3-5.
6 President Clinton issued his directive to the National Institutes of
Health on 2 December 1994, and congressional action (PL104-91/PL104-208) took
effect with the fiscal year 1996 budget.
7 United Nations Commission on Human Rights, Universal
Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights (approved on 19 November 1998).
8 Rick Weiss, "NIH to Fund Controversial Research on Human
Stem Cells," Washington Post, 20 January 1999, p. A2. See ethical critique
at www.stemcellresearch.org
9 The President's Council on Bioethics. Human Cloning and
Human Dignity: An Ethical Inquiry. July 2002.
10 Labels "must be precisely and relevantly defined. They
must be accurately applied. And they must lead to treatment and serves the
welfare of those that are labeled." See Ralph B. Potter, "Labeling
the Mentally Retarded: The Just application of Therapy," in Ethics
in Medicine, ed. Stanley J. Reiser et al. (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T.
Press, 1977), pp.626-31.
11 Leon R. Kass, "The Wisdom of Repugnance: Why We Should Ban
the Cloning of Humans," Valparaiso University Law Review 32 (spring 1998): 679-705.
12 See Arthur J. Dyck, "Eugenics in Historical and Ethical
Perspective," in Genetic
Ethics: Do the Ends Justify the Genes? ed. John F. Kilner et al. (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1997) pp. 25-39.
13 See discussions in John F. Kilner et al., eds., The
Changing Face of Health Care: A Christian Appraisal of Managed Care, Resource
Allocation, and Patient-Caregiver Relationships (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998).
14 Office of Technology Assistance, Congress of the United States, Does
Health Insurance Make a Difference?(Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1992).
15 Numerous reports available from the World Health Organization, and
UNICEF in particular, document current unmet needs. Projections of U.S. health care expenditures suggest that
significant needs in the United
States and other countries will persist well
into the future. See Office of the Actuary, U.S. Health Care Financing
Administration, "The Next Ten Years of Health Spending: What
Does the Future Hold?" Health Affairs (September-October 1998).
16 Arthur J. Dyck, "Lessons from Nuremberg," in Ethics
in Medicine, ed.
Jay
Hollman and John Kilner (Carol Stream, Ill.: Bridge Publications, 1999). See also the classic discussion in Leo Alexander, "Medical
Science under Dictatorship," New England
Journal of Medicine 241
(July 14, 1949): 40-46; cf. Arthur L. Caplan, ed.,When Medicine Went Mad: Bioethics and the Holocaust (Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press,
1992).
17 National Bioethics Advisory
Commission, p. 69.
18 He later expanded on his concerns
about human cloning in his article "Cloning for Medicine," Scientific American 279
(December 1998): 58-63.
19 "WHO
Adopts Resolution Against Cloning Humans," Reuters News Service, 16 May
1997.
20 See, for example, the 1998 essays in the journal Ethics
& Medicine--including those by C. Ben Mitchell (vol. 14:1)
and John Grabowski (vol. 14:3). See also the collection of essays in the spring
1998 issue of theValparaiso University Law Review (vol. 32:2), featuring articles by
such people as Gilbert Meilaender and Daniel Heimbach.
21 On the ABC program Nightline, 7 January 1998.
22 This language was explicitly affirmed
in his 1998 State of the Union address.
23 Allen D. Verhey, "Playing God," in Genetic
Ethics: Do the Ends Justify the Genes? pp. 60-74.
24 Leon Kass, Toward a More Natural Science (New York: Free Press, 1985), p. 48.
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